{"type":"ScholarlyArticle","title":"DeepFlow: Detecting Optimal User Experience From Physiological Data Using Deep Neural Networks","authors":[{"name":"Marco Maier","slug":"marco-maier","given":"Marco","family":"Maier","affiliation":""},{"name":"Daniel Elsner","slug":"daniel-elsner","given":"Daniel","family":"Elsner","affiliation":"University of Munich"},{"name":"Chadly Marouane","slug":"chadly-marouane","given":"Chadly","family":"Marouane","affiliation":""},{"name":"Meike Zehnle","slug":"meike-zehnle","given":"Meike","family":"Zehnle","affiliation":"Technical University of Munich"},{"name":"Christoph Fuchs","slug":"christoph-fuchs","given":"Christoph","family":"Fuchs","affiliation":"Technical University of Munich"}],"abstract":"Flow is an affective state of optimal experience, total immersion and high productivity. While often associated with (professional) sports, it is a valuable information in several scenarios ranging from work environments to user experience evaluations, and we expect it to be a potential reward signal for human-in-the-loop reinforcement learning systems. Traditionally, flow has been assessed through questionnaires which prevents its use in online, real-time environments. In this work, we present our findings towards estimating a user's flow state based on physiological signals measured using wearable devices. We conducted a study with participants playing the game Tetris in varying difficulty levels, leading to boredom, stress, and flow. Using an end-to-end deep learning architecture, we achieve an accuracy of 67.50% in recognizing high flow vs. low flow states and 49.23% in distinguishing all three affective states boredom, flow, and stress.","doi":"10.24963/ijcai.2019/196","url":"https://ijcai.org/proceedings/2019/196","pdf":"https://ijcai.org/proceedings/2019/0196.pdf","markdown":"https://ijcai.org/proceedings/2019/196.md","bibtex":"https://ijcai.org/proceedings/2019/bibtex/196","volume":{"slug":"2019","title":"Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence","short_title":"IJCAI 2019","url":"https://ijcai.org/proceedings/2019/","year":2019,"location":"Macao","dates":"10-16 August 2019","editors":"Sarit Kraus","isbn":"978-0-9992411-4-1","publisher":"International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence Organization","doi_prefix":"10.24963/ijcai.2019"},"section":"Humans and AI","track":"Main track","number":196,"pages":{"first":1415,"last":1421},"keywords":["Machine Learning Applications: Applications of Supervised Learning","Humans and AI: Human-Computer Interaction"],"videos":[],"references":[{"position":1,"raw":"[Anders et al., 2004] Silke Anders, Martin Lotze, Michael Erb, Wolfgang Grodd, and Niels Birbaumer. Brain activ- ity underlying emotional valence and arousal: A response- related fmri study. Human brain mapping, 23(4):200-209, 2004.","title":"Brain activity underlying emotional valence and arousal: A responserelated fmri study","authors":"Silke Anders, Martin Lotze, Michael Erb, Wolfgang Grodd, Niels Birbaumer","year":"2004","venue":"Human brain mapping","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":2,"raw":"[Appelhans and Luecken, 2006] Bradley M Appelhans and Linda J Luecken. Heart rate variability as an index of regu- lated emotional responding. Review of general psychology, 10(3):229, 2006.","title":"Heart rate variability as an index of regulated emotional responding","authors":"M Bradley, Linda J Appelhans, Luecken","year":"2006","venue":"Review of general psychology","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":3,"raw":"[Bai et al., 2018] Shaojie Bai, J Zico Kolter, and Vladlen Koltun. An empirical evaluation of generic convolutional and recurrent networks for sequence modeling. arXiv preprint arXiv:1803.01271, 2018.","title":"An empirical evaluation of generic convolutional and recurrent networks for sequence modeling","authors":"Bai","year":"2018","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":4,"raw":"[Ballinger et al., 2018] Brandon Ballinger, Johnson Hsieh, Avesh Singh, Nimit Sohoni, Jack Wang, Geoffrey H Tison, Gregory M Marcus, Jose M Sanchez, Carol Maguire, Jef- frey E Olgin, et al. Deepheart: Semi-supervised sequence learning for cardiovascular risk prediction. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.02511, 2018.","title":"Deepheart: Semi-supervised sequence learning for cardiovascular risk prediction","authors":"Brandon Ballinger, Johnson Hsieh, Avesh Singh, Nimit Sohoni, Jack Wang, Geoffrey H Tison, Gregory M Marcus, Jose M Sanchez, Carol Maguire, Jeffrey E Olgin","year":"2018","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":5,"raw":"[Baveye et al., 2015] Yoann Baveye, Emmanuel Dellandrea, Christel Chamaret, and Liming Chen. Liris-accede: A video database for affective content analysis. IEEE Trans- actions on Affective Computing, 6(1):43-55, 2015.","title":"Liris-accede: A video database for affective content analysis","authors":"Yoann Baveye, Emmanuel Dellandrea, Christel Chamaret, Liming Chen","year":"2015","venue":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":6,"raw":"[Cambria, 2016] Erik Cambria. Affective computing and sentiment analysis. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 31(2):102- 107, 2016.","title":"Erik Cambria. Affective computing and sentiment analysis","authors":"Cambria","year":"2016","venue":"IEEE Intelligent Systems","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":7,"raw":"[Chanel et al., 2008] Guillaume Chanel, Cyril Rebetez, Mireille Bétrancourt, and Thierry Pun. Boredom, engage- ment and anxiety as indicators for adaptation to difficulty in games. In Proceedings of the 12th international con- ference on Entertainment and media in the ubiquitous era, pages 13-17, 2008.","title":"Boredom, engagement and anxiety as indicators for adaptation to difficulty in games","authors":"Guillaume Chanel, Cyril Rebetez, Mireille Bétrancourt, Thierry Pun","year":"2008","venue":"Proceedings of the 12th international conference on Entertainment and media in the ubiquitous era","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":8,"raw":"[Chanel et al., 2011] Guillaume Chanel, Cyril Rebetez, Mireille Bétrancourt, and Thierry Pun. Emotion assess- ment from physiological signals for adaptation of game difficulty. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics-Part A: Systems and Humans, 41(6):1052- 1063, 2011.","title":"Emotion assessment from physiological signals for adaptation of game difficulty","authors":"Guillaume Chanel, Cyril Rebetez, Mireille Bétrancourt, Thierry Pun","year":"2011","venue":"IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics-Part A: Systems and Humans","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":9,"raw":"[Christiano et al., 2017] Paul Christiano, Jan Leike, Tom Brown, Miljan Martic, Shane Legg, and Dario Amodei. Deep reinforcement learning from human preferences. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, pages 4299-4307, 2017.","title":"Deep reinforcement learning from human preferences","authors":"Christiano","year":"2017","venue":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":10,"raw":"[Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi, 1975] Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Isabella Csikszentmihalyi. Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing Flow in Work and Play, volume 721. Jossey-Bass San Francisco, 1975.","title":"Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing Flow in Work and Play","authors":"Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Isabella Csikszentmihalyi","year":"1975","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":11,"raw":"[Csikszentmihalyi, 1990] M Csikszentmihalyi. Flow. The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York (Harper- Perennial), 1990.","title":"Flow. The Psychology of Optimal Experience","authors":"Csikszentmihalyi","year":"1990","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":12,"raw":"[Harmat et al., 2015] László Harmat, Örjan de Manzano, Töres Theorell, Lennart Högman, Håkan Fischer, and Fredrik Ullén. Physiological correlates of the flow experi- ence during computer game playing. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 97(1):1-7, 2015.","title":"Physiological correlates of the flow experience during computer game playing","authors":"Harmat","year":"2015","venue":"International Journal of Psychophysiology","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":13,"raw":"[IJsselsteijn et al., 2013] WA IJsselsteijn, YAW De Kort, and Karolien Poels. The game experience questionnaire. Eind- hoven: Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, 2013.","title":"The game experience questionnaire","authors":"Ijsselsteijn","year":"2013","venue":"Eindhoven","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":14,"raw":"[Inc., 2018] Empatica Inc. Real-time physiological signals -e4 eda/gsr sensor. https://www.empatica.com/research/ e4/, 2018. Accessed: 2018-09-03.","title":"Empatica Inc. Real-time physiological signals -e4 eda/gsr sensor","authors":null,"year":"2018","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":"https://www.empatica.com/research/e4/,2018","internal_url":null},{"position":15,"raw":"[Jackson and Marsh, 1996] Susan A Jackson and Herbert W Marsh. Development and validation of a scale to measure optimal experience: The flow state scale. Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 18(1):17-35, 1996.","title":"Development and validation of a scale to measure optimal experience: The flow state scale","authors":"A Susan, Herbert W Jackson, Marsh","year":"1996","venue":"Journal of sport and exercise psychology","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":16,"raw":"[Jaques et al., 2018] Natasha Jaques, Jesse Engel, David Ha, Fred Bertsch, Rosalind W. Picard, and Douglas Eck. Learning via social awareness: improving sketch repre- sentations with facial feedback. CoRR, abs/1802.04877, 2018.","title":"Learning via social awareness: improving sketch representations with facial feedback","authors":"Natasha Jaques, Jesse Engel, David Ha, Fred Bertsch, Rosalind W Picard, Douglas Eck","year":"2018","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":17,"raw":"[Keller et al., 2011] Johannes Keller, Herbert Bless, Frederik Blomann, and Dieter Kleinböhl. Physiological aspects of flow experiences: Skills-demand-compatibility effects on heart rate variability and salivary cortisol. Journal of Ex- perimental Social Psychology, 47(4):849-852, 2011.","title":"Physiological aspects of flow experiences: Skills-demand-compatibility effects on heart rate variability and salivary cortisol","authors":"Keller","year":"2011","venue":"Journal of Experimental Social Psychology","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":18,"raw":"[Koskimäki et al., 2017] Heli Koskimäki, Henna Mönttinen, Pekka Siirtola, Hanna-Leena Huttunen, Raija Halonen, and Juha Röning. Early detection of migraine attacks based on wearable sensors: experiences of data collection using empatica e4. In Proceedings of the 2017 ACM In- ternational Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, pages 506-511. ACM, 2017.","title":"Early detection of migraine attacks based on wearable sensors: experiences of data collection using empatica e4","authors":"Koskimäki","year":"2017","venue":"Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":19,"raw":"[Kurniawan et al., 2013] Hindra Kurniawan, Alexandr Maslov, and Mykola Pechenizkiy. Stress detection from speech and galvanic skin response signals. In Proceed- ings of the 2013 IEEE 26th International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems (CBMS), pages 209-214. IEEE, 2013.","title":"Stress detection from speech and galvanic skin response signals","authors":"Kurniawan","year":"2013","venue":"Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 26th International Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems (CBMS)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":20,"raw":"[Lane et al., 2009] Richard Lane, Kateri McRae, Eric Reiman, Kewei Chen, Geoffrey Ahern, and Julian Thayer. Neural correlates of heart rate variability during emotion. Neuroimage, 44(1):213-222, 2009.","title":"Neural correlates of heart rate variability during emotion","authors":"Richard Lane, Kateri Mcrae, Eric Reiman, Kewei Chen, Geoffrey Ahern, Julian Thayer","year":"2009","venue":"Neuroimage","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":21,"raw":"[Lang et al., 1993] Peter Lang, Mark Greenwald, Margaret Bradley, and Alfons Hamm. Looking at pictures: Af- fective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions. Psy- chophysiology, 30(3):261-273, 1993.","title":"Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions","authors":"Peter Lang, Mark Greenwald, Margaret Bradley, Alfons Hamm","year":"1993","venue":"Psychophysiology","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":22,"raw":"[Lisetti, 1998] CL Lisetti. Affective computing, 1998.","title":"Affective computing","authors":"Cl Lisetti","year":"1998","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":23,"raw":"[Maier et al., 2019] Marco Maier, Chadly Marouane, and Daniel Elsner. Deepflow: Detecting optimal user expe- rience from physiological data using deep neural networks -extended abstract. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Sys- tems (AAMAS 2019), pages 2108-2110, May 2019. Mon- treal, Canada.","title":"Deepflow: Detecting optimal user experience from physiological data using deep neural networks -extended abstract","authors":"Maier","year":"2019","venue":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS 2019)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":24,"raw":"[Makowski, 2016] Dominique Makowski. Neurokit: A python toolbox for statistics and neurophysiological signal processing (eeg, eda, ecg, emg...). Memory and Cognition Lab' Day, 01 November, Paris, France, 2016.","title":"Neurokit: A python toolbox for statistics and neurophysiological signal processing","authors":"Dominique Makowski","year":"2016","venue":"Memory and Cognition Lab' Day","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":25,"raw":"[McCarthy et al., 2016] Cameron McCarthy, Nikhilesh Pradhan, Calum Redpath, and Andy Adler. Validation of the empatica e4 wristband. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE EMBS International Student Conference (ISC), pages 1-4. IEEE, 2016.","title":"Validation of the empatica e4 wristband","authors":"Cameron Mccarthy, Nikhilesh Pradhan, Calum Redpath, Andy Adler","year":"2016","venue":"Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE EMBS International Student Conference (ISC)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":26,"raw":"[Mollahosseini et al., 2016] Ali Mollahosseini, Behzad Hasani, Michelle Salvador, Hojjat Abdollahi, David Chan, and Mohammad Mahoor. Facial expression recognition from world wild web. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pages 58-65, 2016.","title":"Facial expression recognition from world wild web","authors":"Ali Mollahosseini, Behzad Hasani, Michelle Salvador, Hojjat Abdollahi, David Chan, Mohammad Mahoor","year":"2016","venue":"IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":27,"raw":"[Mollahosseini et al., 2017] Ali Mollahosseini, Behzad Hasani, and Mohammad Mahoor. Affectnet: A database for facial expression, valence, and arousal computing in the wild. arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.03985, 2017.","title":"Affectnet: A database for facial expression, valence, and arousal computing in the wild","authors":"Ali Mollahosseini, Behzad Hasani, Mohammad Mahoor","year":"2017","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":28,"raw":"[Nacke and Lindley, 2008a] Lennart Nacke and Craig A Lindley. Flow and immersion in first-person shooters: measuring the player's gameplay experience. In Proceed- ings of the 2008 Conference on Future Play: Research, Play, Share, pages 81-88. ACM, 2008.","title":"Flow and immersion in first-person shooters: measuring the player's gameplay experience","authors":"Lindley Nacke, Lennart Nacke, Craig A Lindley","year":"2008","venue":"Proceedings of the 2008 Conference on Future Play: Research, Play, Share","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":29,"raw":"[Nacke and Lindley, 2008b] Lennart Nacke and Craig A Lindley. Flow and immersion in first-person shooters: measuring the player's gameplay experience. In Proceed- ings of the 2008 Conference on Future Play: Research, Play, Share, pages 81-88. ACM, 2008.","title":"Flow and immersion in first-person shooters: measuring the player's gameplay experience","authors":"Lindley Nacke, Lennart Nacke, Craig A Lindley","year":"2008","venue":"Proceedings of the 2008 Conference on Future Play: Research, Play, Share","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":30,"raw":"[Ollander et al., 2016] Simon Ollander, Christelle Godin, Aurélie Campagne, and Sylvie Charbonnier. A compar- ison of wearable and stationary sensors for stress detec- tion. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Con- ference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), pages 4362-4366. IEEE, 2016.","title":"A comparison of wearable and stationary sensors for stress detection","authors":"Simon Ollander, Christelle Godin, Aurélie Campagne, Sylvie Charbonnier","year":"2016","venue":"Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":31,"raw":"[Paletta et al., 2015] L Paletta, NM Pittino, M Schwarz, V Wagner, and KW Kallus. Human factors analysis using wearable sensors in the context of cognitive and emotional arousal. Procedia Manufacturing, 3:3782-3787, 2015.","title":"Human factors analysis using wearable sensors in the context of cognitive and emotional arousal","authors":"Paletta, M Pittino, V Schwarz, Wagner, Kallus","year":"2015","venue":"Procedia Manufacturing","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":32,"raw":"[Picard, 1999] Rosalind W Picard. Affective computing for hci. In HCI (1), pages 829-833. Citeseer, 1999.","title":"Affective computing for hci","authors":"Rosalind W Picard","year":"1999","venue":"HCI (1)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":33,"raw":"[Picard, 2003] Rosalind W Picard. Affective computing: challenges. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 59(1-2):55-64, 2003.","title":"Affective computing: challenges","authors":"Rosalind W Picard","year":"2003","venue":"International Journal of Human-Computer Studies","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":34,"raw":"[Ragot et al., 2017] Martin Ragot, Nicolas Martin, Sonia Em, Nico Pallamin, and Jean-Marc Diverrez. Emotion recognition using physiological signals: laboratory vs. wearable sensors. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, pages 15-22, 2017.","title":"Emotion recognition using physiological signals: laboratory vs. wearable sensors","authors":"Ragot","year":"2017","venue":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":35,"raw":"[Rissler et al., 2018] Raphael Rissler, Mario Nadj, Maximil- ian Xiling Li, Michael Thomas Knierim, and Alexander Maedche. Got flow?: Using machine learning on physio- logical data to classify flow. In Extended Abstracts of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, page LBW612. ACM, 2018.","title":"Got flow?: Using machine learning on physiological data to classify flow","authors":"Raphael Rissler, Mario Nadj, Maximilian Xiling Li, Michael Thomas Knierim, Alexander Maedche","year":"2018","venue":"Extended Abstracts of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, page LBW612","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":36,"raw":"[Shaffer and Ginsberg, 2017] Fred Shaffer and JP Ginsberg. An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms. Frontiers in public health, 5:258, 2017.","title":"An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms","authors":"Ginsberg Shaffer, Fred Shaffer, J P Ginsberg","year":"2017","venue":"Frontiers in public health","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":37,"raw":"[Valenza et al., 2014a] Gaetano Valenza, Luca Citi, Antonio Lanatá, Enzo Pasquale Scilingo, and Riccardo Barbieri. Revealing real-time emotional responses: a personalized assessment based on heartbeat dynamics. Scientific re- ports, 4:4998, 2014.","title":"Revealing real-time emotional responses: a personalized assessment based on heartbeat dynamics","authors":"Valenza","year":"2014","venue":"Scientific reports","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":38,"raw":"[Valenza et al., 2014b] Gaetano Valenza, Mimma Nardelli, Antonio Lanata, Claudio Gentili, Gilles Bertschy, Rita Paradiso, and Enzo Pasquale Scilingo. Wearable moni- toring for mood recognition in bipolar disorder based on history-dependent long-term heart rate variability analy- sis. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics, 18(5):1625-1635, 2014.","title":"Wearable monitoring for mood recognition in bipolar disorder based on history-dependent long-term heart rate variability analysis","authors":"Valenza","year":"2014","venue":"IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":39,"raw":"[Valenza et al., 2015] Gaetano Valenza, Luca Citi, Claudio Gentili, Antonio Lanata, Enzo Scilingo, and Riccardo Bar- bieri. Characterization of depressive states in bipolar pa- tients using wearable textile technology and instantaneous heart rate variability assessment. IEEE journal of biomed- ical and health informatics, 19(1):263-274, 2015.","title":"Characterization of depressive states in bipolar patients using wearable textile technology and instantaneous heart rate variability assessment","authors":"Gaetano Valenza, Luca Citi, Claudio Gentili, Antonio Lanata, Enzo Scilingo, Riccardo Barbieri","year":"2015","venue":"IEEE journal of biomedical and health informatics","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":40,"raw":"[Wang and Ji, 2015] Shangfei Wang and Qiang Ji. Video affective content analysis: a survey of state of the art methods. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 6(4):410-430, May 2015.","title":"Video affective content analysis: a survey of state of the art methods","authors":"Wang, Ji ; ] Shangfei Wang, Qiang Ji","year":"2015","venue":"IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":41,"raw":"[Wikipedia, 2018] Wikipedia. Tetris. https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Tetris, 2018. Accessed: 2018-09-03.","title":"Wikipedia. Tetris","authors":null,"year":"2018","venue":null,"doi":null,"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris,2018","internal_url":null},{"position":42,"raw":"[Xu et al., 2005] Min Xu, L-T Chia, and Jesse Jin. Affec- tive content analysis in comedy and horror videos by au- dio emotional event detection. In 2005 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME), pages 4-pp. IEEE, 2005.","title":"Affective content analysis in comedy and horror videos by audio emotional event detection","authors":"Xu","year":"2005","venue":"IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":43,"raw":"[Yates et al., 2017] Heath Yates, Brent Chamberlain, Greg Norman, and William H Hsu. Arousal detection for bio- metric data in built environments using machine learning. In IJCAI 2017 Workshop on Artificial Intelligence in Af- fective Computing, pages 58-72, 2017.","title":"Arousal detection for biometric data in built environments using machine learning","authors":"Yates","year":"2017","venue":"IJCAI 2017 Workshop on Artificial Intelligence in Affective Computing","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null},{"position":44,"raw":"[Zhai and Barreto, 2006] Jing Zhai and Armando Barreto. Stress detection in computer users based on digital sig- nal processing of noninvasive physiological variables. In Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE 28th Annual International Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology Soci- ety (EMBS), pages 1355-1358. IEEE, 2006.","title":"Stress detection in computer users based on digital signal processing of noninvasive physiological variables","authors":"Barreto ; ] Jing Zhai, Armando Zhai, Barreto","year":"2006","venue":"Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE 28th Annual International Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS)","doi":null,"url":null,"internal_url":null}],"license_note":"Copyright International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence."}