---
title: "Extracting Useful Advice From Conflicting Expertise"
authors:
  - "René Reboh"
doi: ""
url: "https://ijcai.org/proceedings/1983/34"
pdf: "https://ijcai.org/proceedings/1983/0034.pdf"
venue: "Proceedings of the Eighth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence"
year: 1983
pages: "145-149"
track: "Expert Systems"
keywords:
---

# Extracting Useful Advice From Conflicting Expertise

René Reboh

*Proceedings of the Eighth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence*, pages 145-149.

## Abstract

A method for automatically identifying areas of disagree ment and their sources is presented for multi ex pNi knowledge-based systems in the co nt ex t of the Prospector consultation system. It em pl oys perfo rman ce evaluation techniques in co mbinati on with the explanatory facilities prese nt in many expert systems to assist the user of an expert system in deciding which among several possibly conflicting expert op inions he should choose.

## Full text

## 1. INTRODUCTION

An important issue encountered m the construction of expPrt problem-solving programs is how to deal with conflicting expert advice. This question arises even more tangibly in real-life decision-making--whether in the courts, the financial world , or in the context of our political and social institutions. Typically, groups supporting different sides of an issue enlist the services of highly respected experts who, as often as not, arrive at diametrically opposing conclusions or suggest conflicting courses of action. Even when experts do arrive at the same conclusion, how do we know they reached it for the same reasons? The process by which the decision-maker, who presumably is not an expert himself (otherwise we might witness another conflicting opinion), finally decides whose advice to follow is at best highly subjective.

A significant. consequence of the development of knowledge-based expert systems is that they render the reasoning processes of the expert more explicit and therefore open to scrutiny, evaluation, and testing. Most expert systems provide explanatory facilities that can communicate these reasoning processes to the user, thus enabling him to accept the system's opinion with greater confidence--or at least providing him with a tool to assess t\_heir applicability to his problem. The question then, is: how can we take advantage of this explicit representation of expertise to de~ign more objective multiexpert decision support tools?

The knowledge bases of many existing expert systems are each the product of contributions from several experts, and could therefore be termed multiexpert

1 Tbis research was supported in part by the United States Geological Survey under Contract No. 1.4-18-001-20717.

## EXTRACTING USEFUL ADVICE

## FROM CONFLICTING EXPERTISE 1

## Rene Reboh

Artificial Intelligence Center SRI International Menlo Park, CA 04025

Dedicated To John Gaschnig

knowledge bases. Typically , the section of the knowledge base contributed by one expert encodes his particular area of expertise. For the purpose of this paper, however, we shall refN to these knowledge bases as nonconflicting multiexpert knowledge bases, restricting the term multiexpert knowledge base to refer to the encoding by two or more experts of the same area of expertise.

Because a multiexpert knowledge base encodes expertise obtaiued from several expert sources, segments of that expertise will undoubtedly be duplicated, while other segments might vary in diverse ways. For instance, source A could believe more strongly than source B in the association between evidence E 1 and hypothesis H; source C, 011 the other hand , might not consider E 1 important at all , but might ascribe more relevance to some entirely different observation , E 2 . Obviously, there will be many interactions and inconsistencies in the resulting knowledge base. The problems encountered in representing such interactions, however, are not peculiar to conflicting mu ltiexpcrt knowledge. In fact, similar interactions are encountered in nonconflicting knowledge bases, where the problem of maintaining the consistency of the knowledge base as it grows must be dealt with in a similar fashion . In [7] and [8] we explain in detail how such conflicts are discovered and resolved in the Prospector environment.

For simplicity, and without loss of generality, we shall assume in t.he ensuing discussions that we have encoded in some suitable expert system the opinions of just two experts, A and B, about a · particular subject. The conclusions arrived at in the course of consultation with such a system might correspond, essentially, to the following:

If you were to consult with expert A, he would suggest ... If you were to consult with expert B. he would suggest . ..

For most user categories these conclusions are unsatisfactory because the user still has to make the final decision. If an appropriate explanatory facility is provided in the expert system, however, he might be able to probe the rationale underlying each expert's conclusions, identify the sources of possible disagreement, and perhaps

derive a consensus opinion.

There are several techniques that can be readily implemented in most expert system environments to assist the usf'r in arriving automatically at such a consensus opl!Hon. 2 Examples of such techniques include the following:

- Ass ign ing weights to the various sources of expertise to refl ect the user's belief in the respective competence of each source, then having the system combine optmons obtained from each source according to those weights. For example, if at some install ation the expert system is to be employed primarily to solve a particular class of problems, the weight.s can be distributed among selected segments of the knowledge base to reflect the experience of the people at that site and their belief in the applicability of such segments to the problems and situations most frequently considered.
- Adding a de<'ision analysis interface (employing rule­ bn.sed techniques or traditional decision analysis methods ) to serve as a back end to assist the user in filtering and synthesizing the opinions of the various experts.

In both these approaches, specialized (meta) knowledge must be encoded in .the decision support tool. For instance, the knowledge base of the decision analysis interface in the second approach must encode strategies for recogni ;:i ng (perhaps through additional interaction with the usrr) the situational context in which a given opinion has been rendered. Furthermore, the knowledge base must know in which contexts one opinion is more valid than another, as well as take into account such special user preferences as degree of risk aversion, company policy, and so on .

The r('ma.inder of this paper describes an approach that does not require such special knowledge, but relies instead solely on the contents of the expert system's knowledge base. The method assumes a representation of the knowledge base that supports an explanatory facility and allows performance and sensitivity analyses to be performed on selected segments of the knowledge base. We shall outline this technique in the context of Prospector, a knowl edge-based consultant for mineral exploration [2, ;3, 4]. Although we have not applied this methodology directly to the reconciliation of conflicting expert ad vice in actual consultations with Prospector, similar techniques were used during knowledge base construet.ion to detect and resolve the contradictions that often arise when new expertise is merged with an existing knowledge base. In order to elucidate important aspects of the proposed approach, we shall in the next section briefly rev iew the representational formalisms, explanatory facility , and performance evaluation techniques employed in the Prospector environment; we shall then show how these features can be combined to automatically provide the user with impartial assistance when he is eonfronted with disparate expert opinio~s .

2 we know of no expert system, however, in which such techniques have been attempted directly.

## 2. PROSPECTOR'S TECHNIQUES FOR KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION, EXPLANATION, AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

## 2.1. Inference Network Representation

Prospector's knowledge base consists primarily of models that describe important classes of ore deposits. The models ('ncode experts' knowledge of the associations between field-observable evidence a.nd relevant geological hypotheses. A hierarchical (acyc lic) network structure c:~ ll l' d an in ference network is used to group these associations in ways that make explicit the judgmental reasoning processes employed by the expert to solve geological probi<'ms. Inference networks can be viewed as providing a simple language that can be utilized by a knowledge engiueer for communicating with a domain expert. This language allows the expert to specify (a) the fac tors that. are relevant for solving a problem, (b) the paths for propagating information from a given factor to a hypotlwsis by explicitly indicating which factors affect others, and (c) how degrees of belief in these factors should be combined to reach a conclusion.

Prospector·s infPrcnce network language provides a set of st.anchrd primitive procedures for updating a probab ilist ic measure of belief in a given factor by combiuing the lwlief measures computed for the factors lltat affect. it. The XYZ model of Figure l illustrates some of the repres('n(.ational constructs employed in Prospector. Without full y exphining the manner of interpreting these inference diagrams, let us simply observe that, in effect, various fac tors (represented by boxes) are combined by plausible inferences (arrows with which two rule strength numbers are associated) , logical in ferences (arrows to boxes cont.aining AND, OR, or N01), or contextual relatio11 .s {das hed arrows). Numbers on the right corners of boxes are pr-ior probabilities associated with the corresponding factors. The strength of the rule labeled L(CPY) vnri es over the range of values (i.e., pyrite concentrations ) associated with the node CPY. P(CPY) defines the prior probability distribution associated with CPY .~ 1

Once obtained, an inference network can be interpreted in varying ways t.o perform different tasks. For example, during a consultation the interpreter is concerned primarily with ~el ecting a suitable line of reasoning and determining which would be the most important data to ask the user about. The interpretation thus results in an interac tion with the user to ascertain which of the models encoded best matches the prospect described by the user's answers.

3 The inference network language supports several additional constructs. In particular, in developing Hydro, a knowledge-based interface to a hydrological modeling system !6, 91, several constructs were added to extend Prospector's probabilistic inference mechanisms to reasoning about numerical quantities.

Figure 1: A PROSPECTOR INFEHENCE NETWOHK

![Image](https://ijcai.org/proceedings/1983/fulltext/34/image_000000_e1533d6647f1caf74ff277fcde83404b981361d433c706a05ddc307e344d6466.png)

## 2.2. Explanatory Facility

In addition to the simple rule-backchaining employed by many expert. systems to explain their line of reasoning, Prospector is capable of a sophisticated interpretation of the state of its knowledge base for the purpose of furni;;hing more useful explanations anytime during a consultation. For instance, by performing both a best- and a worst-case analysis of the possible effects of rules invoked to establ ish a hypothesis, Prospector can inform the user of the most critical factors that contributed to its conclusions or that have the potential to change them. This often suggests to the user what actions he can take if, in fact, he shou ld wish to alter Prospector's conclusions or at least increase their reliability. This situation is particularly common in the early stages of exploration when , because the user supplies relatively little information to the system, very uncertain conclusions are generated. By displaying the reasons for its uncertainty, Prospector is in effect suggesting to the user that, to achi0ve a more certain conclusion, he should consider tak ing some proposed action--such as performing geochPmical analyses, drilling a hole, and so on. Other fea turPs of t lw Pxpbnatory system stem from Prospector's abi li ty to rel::tte user-volunteered information efficiently to its knowledge base (using a semantic network matcher; see [7 , 8j ). For instance, the explanatory system can dist.inguish between evidence that has been inferred through t.he application of expert rules and evidence that has bt·t·n directly or indirectly supplied by the user. It is also able to explain why the system's control strategy asks about a pa rt.icular factor as well as why it is focusing on establishing a particular global hypothesis.

## 2.3. Performance Evaluation Techniques in Prospector

The exa.ct methodology and tools employed are discussed in detail in [2, 5, llj. A brief out.linc of the most important aspects of our approach is given below.

## 2.3.1. Relative Comparison of Prospector with the Expert

Because there exist no objective quantitative measures for cvalunt. ing the performance of human geologists, few experiments have been attempted to determine just how good Prospector's conclusions are in absolute terms (see [lj, however, for one such successful experiment). We have concent rated instead on assessing the validity of Prospe<'tor's conclusions, as compared with those of the specialists who provided the models, when the human experts nrc presented with the same situation and input data. Selected test cases typically include not only regions that are good exemplars of the model being evaluated, but also some poor matches and false-alarm situations. For each test case, Prospector's conclusions are compared with the expert's assessment (the target conclusion). Comparisons are performed for the top-level hypothesis in each model (usually corresponding to the likelihood that a particular type of ore deposit will be present in the considered location), as well as for several intermediate hypotheses (i .e., lower-level sections or the inference network) .

## 2.3.2. Sensitivity Analysis

Because a degree of certainty can be associated with input data, we also investigate the sensitivity of Prospector's conclusions to perturbations in the certainties of the inputs. To perform this analysis, P rospector is applied (in a batch mode fashion) to each of the test cases while the input data are systematically modified. At least two runs are executed in which input data are modified towards increased and decreased certainty, respectively. On the basis of Prospector's certain t.y scale of -5 to 5, all inputs are moved towards 0 in the less certain run and towards the endpoints -5 or 5 in the more certain run. Conclusions from these runs are compared with the original standard run and the differences then analyzed. Here too the analysis is performed both for the top-level hypothesis and for several in tcrrnediate hypotheses.

## 2.3.3. Performance Evaluation and Sensitivity Analysis as Diagnostic Tools

Several tools (e.g., one for generating scattergrams automatically on a bit map display) have been implemented in the Prospector environment for analyzing the results of performance evaluations and sensitivity analyses. As a consequence of these experiments, areas of disagreement between the exp·ert and Prospector can be easily and accurately identified and their sources isolated. Furthermore, a careful interpretation of both the performance evaluation and the sensitivity analysis results makes it possible to establish a priority ordering to determine which sections of a model would most benefit from furth er revision and refinement--and to ensure that parallel conclusions of Prospector and the expert are indeed based on the same considerations.

## 3. APPLYING EVALUATION AND EXPLANATORY FACILITIES TO GENERATE CONSENSUS

In the foregoing section we outlined how, in Prospector, a model is compared with its human author. If, instead of being elicited from the human expert, the target conclusions were derived from another model encoding divergent expertise, it is easy to see how performance evaluation techniques similar to those outlined above can be applied to compare the two models. Because two models encoding opinions of two different experts might differ entirely as to which factors are considered to solve a particular problem and as to the manner in which the relevant knowledge and data are structured, the system's explanatory facility can be utilized to pinpoint areas of disagreement (as well as of agreement); sensitivity analysis techniques can be used to assess the criticality of the differences. More importantly, the source of such disagreement can be traced through the inference network to nodes that arc shared by both models (i.e., factors considered by both experts but to which different effects are attributed) or to nodes contained in at least one of the models (i.e., factors considered relevant by some expert), and that correspond to observable evidence.

Conclusions generated in consultation with a system contain ing these features might look like the following: 4

If you were to consult with expert A, he would suggest ... If you were to consult with expert B. he would suggest .. .

However,

IF you believe that observation E 1 has a strong positive effect on intermediate hypothesis H 1

THEN I suggest you follow A's advice.

IF, on the other hand, you don't believe THAT, and you believe strongly that observation E 2

(which, by the way, has not

been considered by A)

has anegative effect on intermediate hypothesis H 2 ,

THEN you should follow

OTHERWISE supply me with the following

B's advice . additional information : . ..

If the user (i. e., the decision-maker) confronted with the above recommendation has no idea whatsoever regarding the relationships between observation E 1 and hypothesis H 1 or between E 2 and H 2 , he might conceivably probe further into both .sides of the issue by enlisting additional experts. This t.ime, however , they will be concerned with a much smaller subset of the problem: the relationships between E 1 and 1-1 1 and between E 2 and H 2 . It is possible that a f iner-grade knowledge base with expertise relevant to that problem subset will have· already been encoded, so that the same methodology could be applied recursively to the models encod ing the smaller domain. Ultimately, because each subsequent reformulation of the sources of disagreement entails an even more constricted domain of expertise, the user will be capable of deciding the issue himself.

Finally, let us briefly describe how Prospector can represent and propagate the effects of conflicting rules. Let us first observe that no additional mechanism is needed to handle nonconflicting sections (i.e., identical) of both models or sections that occur in only one of the models. We must, however, be prepared to deal with confli cting rules (i .e., having conflicting rule strengths) that link the same evidence to the same hypothesis i n different models. The case in which the conflicting rules have left-hand sides (or right-hand sides) that are different, yet semantically related, can be reformulated into the simpler case of identical left-hand sides (or righthand sides). A method for performing this reformulation in Prospector is described in [7, 8] . It uses partial matching techniques to discover inference network nodes with overlapping semantic content and, if necessary, additional rules are automatically generated to interconnect the related concepts in a numerically consistent manner.

4 Rather than display a complete analysis such as that illustrated here, Prospector's explanatory system allows the user to interactively explore only selected paths or the inference network pursuing each path to any desired depth.

At present, when Prospector discovers conflicting rules with identica l left- and right-hand sides, (e.g., in the process of adding a new model to the existing knowledge base), it declares an inconsistency; the knowledge engineer must then rt'solve the situation by talking to the experts and modi fying the inference networks. In a system that tolerates the coexistenee of nonconcurring expertise, we can leave the conflicting rules--as long as the paths for propngat ing their effects through the inference network are kept dist inct.. Prospector has a mechanism for maintaining such a distinction when necessary. Called the FROG mechanism [2], it allows Prospector to be used recursively when, in the process of establishing some hypothesis, it must solve another classification su bprohlcm. The sections of the inference network that encode the alternative hypotheses concerning the subproblem can be executed as often as necessary to arrive at a solution for the subproblem that can then be propagated through the network in the usual manner . To allow for the recursive use of sections of inference networks, a simple property list structure--rather than a single slot--is associated with certain fields (e.g., probabili ty, value, etc) that, in turn, are attached to nodes in the networks. Values stored in these fields can thus be maintained (i .e., modified, propagated, examined, and so on) relative to distinct environments. In a multiexpert system, each expert can be regarded as constituting such a distinct environment.

## 4. CONCLUSION

When we construct a knowledge-based system, we attempt to encode approximations of an expert's problem­ solving skills in some domain. There are limits, of course, to what any par ticular representation of such expertise in machine-interpretable form can express; some subtleties of speciali zed human know-how remain invariably unaccoun ted for. For these and other reasons it will be a long t ime before an expert system is developed whose advice will actually be superior to that of the experts who supplied its knmvledge base. At best, by virtue of the systematic-analysis capabilities of computer programs and the fac t. that a knowledge base can contain expertise obtained from a number of exP.erts, we can affirm that such a system indeed has the potential to become a better overall expert than any of the individuals who helped build its knowledge base. In any event, by employing techniques such as those summarized here, we can show that an expert system, in addition to its ability to exhibit occasionally impressive competence in a subject area and explicate the reasoning behind its conclusions, can offer even greater utility as an objective and impartial decision­ support tool.

We believe that these techniques are sufficiently general to be readily implementable in other expert system environments.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I have had many discussions with John Reiter in preparing this paper. He also conducted a substantial number of the performance assessment experiments for both Prospector and Hydro, implementing many cv a.luat.ion tools. Savel Kliachko read several draft versions of this paper and his helpful comments are greatly appreciated.

Many computer scientists and consulting geologists have contributed to the development of the Prospector system. The contributions over many years of Richard 0 . Duda, P eter E. Hart , and the late John G. Gaschnig are particularly relevant to the work described here. Jonathan Slocum made significant improvements in Prospector's explanatory system.

## References

1. Campbell, A. N., V. F . Hollister, R. 0 . Duda, and P . E. Hart, "Recognition of a Hidden Mineral Deposit by an Artificial Intelligence Program ," Sciwce, Vol. 217, pp. 027-929 (September 1982).
2. Duda, R.O. , P. E. Hart, P. Barrett, J. G. Gaschnig, K. G. Konolige, R. Reboh, and J. Slocum, "Development of the Prospector Consultation System for Mineral Exploration." Technical Report Final Report, SRI Projects 5821 and 6415, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International, Menlo Park, California (October 1978).
3. Duda, R.O., P . E. Hart, K. G. Konolige, and R. Reboh, "A Co mputer-Based Consultant for Mineral Exploration ." T echnical Report Final Report, SRI Project 6415, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International , Menlo Park, California (September 1979).
4. Duda, R. 0 ., "The Prospector System for Mineral Exploration ." T ec hnical Report Final Report, SRI Project 8172, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International , Menlo Park , California (April 1980).
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6. Gaschnig J . G. , R. Reboh and J . Reiter, "Development of a Knowl edge-Based Expert Sy5tem for Water Re5ource Problems ." Technical Report Final Report, SRI Project 1619, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International, Menlo Park , California (August 1981).
7. Reboh, R. , "Using a Matcher to make an Expert Cons ultation System Behave Intelligently, " Proceeding&, First Annual National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 231-234, Stanford, California (Augu5t 1980).
8. Reboh, R., " Knowledge Engineering Techniques and Tool5 in the Prospector Environment." Technical Report Technical Note 243, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International , Menlo Park, California (June 1981).
9. boh, R., J . Reiter and J. G. Gaschnig, "Development of a Knowledge-Based Interface to a Hydrological Simulation Program. " Technical Report Final Report, SRI Project 3477, Artificial Intelligence Center, SRI International, Menlo Park, California (May 1982).